Dimension: Learning strategies
Petra Schorat-Waly
It is characteristic of the field of research on learning processes that the multitude of technical terms and concepts such as learning style, learning strategy, learner type or cognitive style are used differently depending on the author. The terminological vagueness of the field is also expressed by the fact that many authors explain the technical terms they use precisely at the beginning of their work, but do not use them precisely in the further course of their work. Creß (2006, p. 365) suggests arranging the theoretical concepts on a continuum for better differentiation: Here, the behaviors observable in the concrete learning situation represent one pole. The other pole describes relatively stable cognitive or affective behaviors that people exhibit across learning situations.
Since the concepts of cognitive styles and learning styles[1] both describe relatively stable behaviors rooted in personality, they are assigned to the cross-situational pole. They are mainly discussed in the context of adapting education to the learning environment, i.e. to the "strengths" of the "learning type". How educators and students can intentionally influence or control learning is almost meaningless in this context (Wild 2000, p. 8).[2] In addition, the student body is not a homogeneous group, and a one-sided orientation of education towards a "learning type" therefore hardly seems to make sense. Learning strategies represent the diametrically opposed pole close to the situation and are therefore the more interesting concept in the context of education and learning processes in higher education. Authors not only define learning strategies differently, but also classify them. Streblow and Schiefele (2006, p. 353) state that they usually have four characteristics. According to them, learning strategies are a "sequence of efficient learning techniques" which are "used in a goal-oriented and flexible manner". Although they are usually "automated", they nevertheless remain "conscious". Learning techniques are the methods used within the learning strategy (e.g. drawing sketches, underlining texts, etc.).
The field of research on learning strategies can be roughly divided into two dominant directions: There are the "approaches-to-learning" approaches and the learning strategy conceptions based on cognitive psychology (Wild 2000, p. 10).
"Approach-to-learning approaches
The characteristic feature of the approach-to-learning approaches is that in a particular learning situation, a learner's motivation and intention to learn are considered alongside the learning strategies. The learning orientations originally identified by Marton and Säljö (1976) and validated and expanded in terms of content by other researchers such as Biggs (1987) or Entwistle and Ramsden (1983) are empirically well documented: deep approach and surface approach. The additional motive-learning strategy combinations postulated by Biggs and Entwistle are no longer supported by more recent research findings (Wild 2000, p. 28).
The deep approach is associated with intrinsic motivation and strategies of thorough understanding of facts, regulations and contexts. Learners in this group are interested in actively integrating new information into existing structures of knowledge and attitudes. The surface approach is more oriented towards the reproduction of knowledge. These learners are characteristically very dependent on the learning plan. The main motivating factor is the fear of failure. These learners acquire knowledge primarily through memorization techniques. Various studies have investigated which approach achieves better learning success (Martin and Nicolaisen 2015, p. 14). The findings vary greatly. Some studies were able to demonstrate advantages for the deep processing group in complex tasks with longer processing times. The surface approach performs better when narrowly defined factual knowledge is tested.
Cognitive psychological approaches
The research focus of cognitive psychology-oriented learning strategy researchers is on analyzing the cognitive information processing process. They investigate which behaviors can support this learning process. Using questionnaires, they developed a category system of learning strategies to which they assigned subcategories and learning techniques that promote learning. In German-speaking countries, the LIST (Lernen im Studium) questionnaire developed by Wild and Schiefele in the 1990s was used and further developed. Schiefele and Wild refrained from surveying motivational strategies, as these play into the other strategy categories and they therefore considered a methodologically clean survey to be difficult (Martin and Nicolaisen 2015, p. 16 ff.).
The emotional turn in learning strategy research
This changed at the beginning of the 21st century with the so-called emotional, motivational turn in learning research, in the course of which the significance of emotion in cognition was reassessed. It was recognized that they have a significant impact on our rational thinking and have a major influence on memory performance. This is why Martin explicitly includes motivational strategies in the LSN questionnaire he designed, even though it is otherwise very close to the LIST questionnaire in terms of content (Martin and Nicolaisen 2015, p. 17). The following table provides an overview of the category system he developed and shows some learning techniques, for example.
Learning strategies | Learning techniques |
A Cognitive learning strategies (aim: better absorption, storage and reproduction of information) | |
A.1 Improve organization and structuring of the material | Marking text passages/writing summaries/creating mind maps |
A.2 Making connections | Make connections to own prior knowledge/create links to other subjects |
A.3 Critically questioning information | Thinking about whether what you are learning or hearing is logical/looking for alternative explanations |
A.4 Efficient repetition | Shortening and distributing repetition sequences over several days/using memory bridges as a reminder/loci method |
B. Metacognitive learning strategies (goal: understanding and controlling your own learning) | |
B.1 Building and expanding learning knowledge | Getting to know how the brain works/talking about learning with learning experts or advanced learners |
B.2 Building learning knowledge about yourself | When learning, make a conscious effort to regularly look at yourself from a bird's eye view/keep learning diaries |
B. 3 Planning, monitoring and evaluating learning | Setting daily goals/recording open questions and problems |
C. Resource-oriented strategies (goal: improving the framework conditions for learning) | |
C.1 Improve internal framework conditions for learning | |
C.1.1 Develop a positive attitude towards material and effort | Regularly remind yourself that slumps are part of every major project/ build up willingness to work harder for success if necessary |
C.1.2 Optimize energy levels | Sleep enough so that you are rested the next day/ Take regular exercise breaks |
C.1.3 Time management | Create a realistic weekly schedule |
C.1.4 Anticipating difficulties | Mentally play through potentially difficult situations/build up beneficial imaginations |
C.2 Improve external framework conditions | |
C.2.1 Optimize the learning environment | Ergonomic set-up of the workplace/switch off smartphones |
C.2.2 Learning with other people | Explaining facts to a critical listener/comparing summaries |
C.2.3 Searching for further information | Finding missing information using databases and search engines/asking experts |
D. Motivational strategies (goal: controlling feelings and moods while learning) | |
D.1 Internal motivational strategies | |
D.1.1 (Self-) reward strategies | Self-reward according to daily goals |
D.1.2 Thinking about profit (extrinsic motivation strategies) | Thinking about the future opportunities that learning success opens up/trying to be better than others |
D.1.3 Experiencing that you can do something (strengthening self-efficacy) | Focus on what you have already achieved/choose peers who strengthen your own self-esteem |
D.1.4 Dealing positively with success and failure (self-esteem-protecting attribution) | Attribute success to one's own ability/view failure as a one-off event that can be corrected in the future |
D.1.5 Overcoming motivational crises | Activate experiential knowledge/realize that ups and downs are part of every major learning project |
D.2 Situational motivation strategies | |
D.2.1 Seeking motivation in the task itself (strengthening intrinsic motivation) | Choice of task according to interest rather than expected completion time/choice of tasks with a medium level of difficulty |
D.2.2 Seek freedom in pace and planning | Ask teachers to occasionally have a say in the choice of topic/provide specific topic or project suggestions |
Table 1: Overview of learning strategies according to Martin
Source: Martin and Nicolaisen (2015, p. 23 ff.)
The most important findings of learning strategy research can be summarized in a few key statements: Learning strategies are important determinants of academic performance. There is therefore no doubt that it makes sense to promote the use of strategies among students (Streblow and Schiefele 2006, p. 360). The most successful learners are those who believe in themselves and have a broad repertoire of learning strategies that they can use appropriately for the situation and task at hand. The use of learning strategies can be easily and strongly influenced by educators and learning advisors (Martin and Nicolaisen 2015, p. 49).
Literature
Biggs, J. B. (1987): Student approaches to learning and studying. Melbourne.
Creß, U. (2006): Learning orientation, learning styles, learning types and cognitive styles. In: H. Mandl and H. F. Friedrich (eds.): Handbuch Lernstrategien. Göttingen, 365-277.
Entwistle, N. J.; Ramsden, P. (1983): Understanding student learning. London: Croom-Helm.
Martin, P.-Y.; Nicolaisen, T. (2015): Introduction and basics. In: P.-Y Martin and T. Nicolaisen (eds.): Promoting learning strategies. Weinheim: Beltz Juventa, pp. 9-69.
Marton, F.; Säljö, R. (1976): On qualitative differences in learning - Outcome and process. In: British Journal of Educational Psychology (64), 4-11; 115-127.
Streblow, L.; Schiefele, U. (2006): Learning strategies during studies. In: H. Mandl and H. F. Friedrich (eds.): Handbuch Lernstrategien. Göttingen: Hogrefe, pp. 352-364.
Wild, K.-P. (2000): Learning strategies in studies. Münster: Waxmann Verlag.
Citation
Schorat-Waly, Petra (2017): Dimension: learning strategies. In: Rump, Jutta; Buß, Imke; Kaiser, Janina; Schiedhelm, Melanie; Schorat-Waly, Petra: Toolbox for good education in a diverse student body. Working Papers of the Ludwigshafen University of Business and Society, No. 6. www. hwg-lu.de/arbeitspapiere
Use according to Creative Commons under attribution (please use the citation provided) and for non-commercial purposes.
[1] Vester's theory (1998) is still very popular. He distinguishes - according to their preference for sensory channels - between four learning types: the auditory ("through hearing and speaking"), the visual ("through the eye, through observation"), the haptic ("through touching and feeling") and the intellectual learning type. However, this theory is neither theoretically sound nor empirically proven (Creß 2006, p. 372). However, it is still undisputed that all learners benefit from well-structured learning content that is offered through multiple sensory channels (Martin and Nicolaisen 2015, p. 15).
[2 ] Creß only assigns the cognitive style to the situational pole and locates the learning style between the two poles.